게헨나(Gehenna)
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대체로 2006년 쯤, 누군가 쓴 것을 출처없이 여기저기 옮긴 것인데...
기왕이면, 학구적으로 공부해 보는 것이 나을 것 같아, 아래에 Anchor Bible Dictionary (1992)에 실린 짦은 글을 소개한다.
얼마전 헬라어 읽기반에서 마태복음 10장을 읽으면서도 토론했던 이야기이다. 게헨나 외에 신약에서는 하데스(Hades)도 쓰이는데, 하데스는 구약에 나오는 스올(Sheol)처럼 특별히 심판과 관계없이 죽은 자들이 가는 곳--무덤, 지하세계--으로 이해된다.
GEHENNA (PLACE) [Lat Gehenna]. Valley, currently known as the Wadi er-Rababeh, running S-SW of Jerusalem and also a designation for fiery hell, the opposite of the dominion of God and eternal life. The Lat form is derived from the Gk geenna. The Gk is a transcription of the Aram geÆhinnaµm whose Heb form is geÆ-hinnoµm. The name means “Valley of Hinnom” or its full form “Valley of the son of Hinnom” (see HINNOM VALLEY). Outside of the NT (Matt 5:22) and the OT Apocrypha (2 Esdr 2:29; 7:36 [Lat only]), the Gk geenna or the Lat Gehenna is not found in any sources, including the LXX, Philo, Josephus, or Gk literature. Further in the RSV, only 2 Esdr 2:29 renders the Latin form of the name as “Gehenna.” The other occurrence of the Latin form in 2 Esdr 7:36 and all NT occurrences of the Greek form of the name are rendered in the RSV as “hell.”<?xml:namespace prefix = o ns = "urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:office" />
A. Old Testament
The Valley of Hinnom marked the boundary between the inheritance of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin (Josh 15:8; 18:16) and the northern border of Judah after the captivity (Neh 11:30). The valley was the scene of the idolatrous worship of the Canaanite gods Molech and Baal. This worship consisted of sacrificing children by passing them through a fire on Topheth (a high place) and into the hands of the gods (Jer 7:31; 19:4–5; 32:35). These practices were observed during monarchy at least under the reigns of Ahaz and Manasseh who themselves sacrificed their own children (2 Kgs 16:3; 21:6; 2 Chr 28:3; 33:6).
Josiah defiled the site as part of his reform program (2 Kgs 23:10; cf. vv 13–14), but the prophecy of Jeremiah indicates that it probably recurred later in the monarchy. Jeremiah prophesied that it would no longer be called Topheth or the Valley of Hinnom, but the valley of Slaughter because of the numerous Judeans killed and thrown into it by the Babylonians (Jer 7:29–34; 19:1–15).
Recently Bailey (1986: 189–91) has suggested that since altars and cultic places were considered an entrance to the realm of the god they served, and such sites often lent their name to that realm, then Gehenna may have naturally lent its name to the underworld realm of the god Molech who was worshiped there.
B. Intertestamental Period
One product of the development of a concept of the afterlife during the Hellenistic Period was the notion of a fiery judgment (1 En. 10:13; 48:8–10; 100:7–9; 108:4–7; Jdt 16:17; 2 Bar. 85:13), a judgment usually in a fiery lake or abyss (1 En. 18:9–16; 90:24–27; 103:7–8; 2 En. 40:12; 2 Bar. 59:5–12; 1QH 3). The Valley of Hinnom, often referred to simply as “the accursed valley” or “abyss,” then came to represent the place of eschatological judgment of the wicked Jews by fire (1 En. 26–27; 54:1–6; 56:1–4; 90:24–27).
This association of fiery judgment and Gehenna was once attributed to the influence of the Iranian Avestan doctrine of the ultimate judgment of the wicked in a stream of molten metal (Yasna 31.3; 51.9). However, the Zoroastrian molten metal was purgatorial, not penal. Other reasons given for the association are the fact that the Valley of Hinnom was noted for the fires of the Molech cult and later contained the continually burning fires of a refuse dump. Although Gehenna does not have these associations in the OT, the OT is the primary source of the association, particularly the prophecies of Jeremiah regarding the dead bodies of the wicked cast into Gehenna (7:29–34; 19:6–9; 32:35). The prophecies of Isaiah which ironically prophesy the threat of the Topheth readied for Molech himself (30:33), a devouring fire and everlasting burnings, and of a fire that will not be quenched readied for the wicked all contributed to the association (33:14; 66:24; cf. Isa 50:11; Dan 12:2; Mal 4:1).
By at least the 1st century c.e. there emerged a metaphorical understanding of Gehenna as the place of judgment by fire for all wicked everywhere (Sib. Or. 1.100–103; 2.283–312). The judgment of the wicked occurred either as a casting of their soul in Gehenna immediately upon death or as a casting of the reunited body and soul into Gehenna after the resurrection and last judgment (2 Esdr 7:26–38; 4 Ezra 7:26–38; Ascen. Is. 4:14–18; cf. Sib. Or. 4.179–91). This understanding divorced Gehenna from its geographical location, but retained its fiery nature. Gehenna had become hell itself.
C. New Testament
All of the 12 references to Gehenna in the NT are used metaphorically as the place of fiery judgment. With the exception of Jas 3:6, which refers to the tongue being set on fire by Gehenna, all the references are in the Synoptic Gospels as sayings of Jesus (Matt 5:22, 29–30; 10:28; 18:9; 23:15, 33; Mark 9:43, 45, 47; Luke 12:5). Gehenna is preexistent (Matt 25:41) and its fire is reserved for the destruction of the wicked (Matt 5:22; 13:42, 50; 18:9 = Mark 9:43). Its punishment is eternal (Matt 25:41, 46) and the fire will not be quenched (Mark 9:43, 48). Other related NT expressions include judgment, wrath, destruction, Tartarus, fire, and lake of fire and sulphur (Heb 10:27; 2 Pet 2:4; Jude 7; Rev 19:20; 20:10, 14; 21:8). Recently Milikowsky has cogently argued that the comparison of Matt 10:28 = Luke 12:5 and other passages reveals that both 1st century conceptions of Gehenna are found in the NT: Gehenna as a place of judgment for the soul of the wicked immediately after death is Lukan, and Gehenna as the judgment of the wicked in a reunited body and soul after resurrection and judgment is Matthean (1988: 242–44).
Although not describing the torments of Gehenna, Jesus warned his disciples to take all precautions not to fall victim to it. Those who call their brother a fool (Matt 5:22), those who give in to sinful inclinations (Matt 5:29–30 = Mark 9:45, 47; Matt 18:9 = Mark 9:43), and the scribes and Pharisees (Matt 23:15, 33) are liable to Gehenna. A person destined to Gehenna can be designated “a child of Gehenna” (Matt 23:15). Besides being the fate of the wicked (Rev 20:15; 21:8), Gehenna is the fate awaiting the devil and his angels (Matt 25:41; Rev 20:10), the beast and the false prophet (Rev 19:20; 20:10), and death and Hades (Rev 20:13–14).
With the possible exception of Luke 12:5, the NT distinguishes Gehenna from Hades (NIDNTT 2: 208–9). Whereas Hades is the provisional place of the ungodly between death, resurrection, and final judgment (cf. Rev 20:13–14 where Hades yields up its dead for judgment and is thrown into the lake of fire at the last judgment), Gehenna is the eternal place of the wicked after final judgment. Hades receives the soul only (Acts 2:27, 31), Gehenna receives both body and soul (Matt 10:28; cf. Luke 12:5). The NT does not describe the torment of Gehenna or portray Satan as the lord of Gehenna. These are later literary accoutrements. (See TDNT 1: 657–58.)
D. Rabbinic Literature
The same extended metaphorical use of Gehenna as the place of judgment of the wicked is found in the Mishnah (m. Qidd. 4.14; m. <Abot 1.5; 5.19, 20), Tosefta (t. Ber. 6.15), and Talmud (b. Rosû. Hasû. 16b–17a; b. Ber. 28b). In rabbinic thought, as early as the 1st century–early 2d century c.e., Gehenna was conceived as both an intermediate place of punishment for the souls of the wicked between death and resurrection to final judgment, and as the place of final judgment of the reunited body and soul of the wicked (Midr. Tehillim 31.3).
Most Jews would be spared Gehenna completely, and most of those who do enter it in the intermediate state would be released from it, with the exception of historic reprobates, adulterers, or those who shame or vilify others (b. Rosû. Hasû. 16b–17a). It was a fiery purgatory for those Jews whose merits and transgressions balanced one another (t. Sanh. 13.3) who would afterward be admitted to Paradise. Often the punishment of Gehenna was restricted to 12 months (m. >Ed. 2.10; S. >Olam Rab. 3; b. Qidd 31b). However, the punishment for Gentiles in Gehenna was eternal. The epithet “child of Gehenna” is used in the Talmud (b. Rosû. Hasû. 17b) as it is in Matt 23:15. (See Str-B 4: 1029–1118.)
Bibliography
Bailey, L. 1986. Gehenna: The Topography of Hell. BA 49: 187–91.
Milikowsky, C. 1988. Which Gehenna? Retribution and Eschatology in the Synoptic Gospels and in Early Jewish Texts. NTS 34: 238–49.
Duane F. Watson
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